cytoplasm

DNA mutates spontaneously from background radiation and mutagens present in the cytoplasm (oxygen is even one!) and etc.

He was studying the biophysics of cytoplasm, which is not something that people trained in medicine do.

But these are biological systems inherently designed/evolved to work in one special condition that is the cytoplasm of the host...

They are systematically encysted into vesicles and surrounded by giant masses of inert cytoplasm and various organelles that depend on them completely.

Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining is one of the most common methods employed, allowing researchers to examine cellular details, such as nuclei and cytoplasm.

First, the cytoplasm has immune mechanisms and enzymes that destroy foreign DNA.

Predicted to be active in cytoplasm; dendrite; and neuronal cell body.

Cells are mobile, hunt, some even see using photoreceptive organelles on the inside of a section of cell wall using the cytoplasm as a lens.

Interference patterns of periodic, coherent reaction-diffusion waves in cytoplasm and larger spatial scales could account for scale-free information patterns regulating biological systems including the brain.

But it only shows you cell morphology: nuclei and cytoplasm.

The vast majority of the 2000+ proteins that make up a mitochondrion are encoded in the nuclear genome, synthesized in the cytoplasm, and imported into mitochondria.

There is some information in the cytoplasm, but how much?

TIL "Efflux pumps are protein machines that use energy to pump antibiotics and other small molecules that get into the bacterial cytoplasm and the periplasmic space out of the cell." They even have their own bilge pumps!

Axons transmit electrical signals and that's what Bostrom is taking to be an "op." But they also transmit vesicles of mRNA and proteins directly from the cytoplasm of one neuron into another, which is an "op" of unimaginable complexity compared to a neuron simply firing (or any CPU instruction), and we have no clue what that means for cognition.

I am not sure where whole-cell simulation is at the moment since I've been away from the field for about 15 years, but I recall a rather difficult multi-month simulation that was trying to model an "empty" volume of cytoplasm away from the organelles, about 1/50th of total cell volume, and with all proteins and metabolites replaced by hard spheres of varying "stickiness".